Reform movements and the expansion of

In the years before the Civil War the Northern United States abounded with movements for social change. Reformers and reform organizations created new institutions such as prisons, asylums and orphanages, sought to transform the public schools, to eradicate social ills such as prostitution and drunkenness in order to strengthen family life, and to reform the system of support for the poor.

Bring fact-checked results to the top of your browser search. Islamic history from to the present: Yet it is also possible to argue that the period of Western domination was merely an interlude in the ongoing development of indigenous styles of modernization.

The three major Muslim empires did experience a decline during the 18th century, as compared with their own earlier power and with the rising powers in Europebut most Muslims were not yet aware that Europe was partly to blame.

Similar decline had occurred many times before, a product of the inevitable weaknesses of the military-conquest state turned into centralized absolutismoverdependence on continuous expansion, weakening of training for rule, the difficulty of maintaining efficiency and loyalty in a large and complex royal household and army, and the difficulty of maintaining sufficient revenues for an increasingly lavish court life.

Furthermore, population increased, as it did almost everywhere in the 18th-century world, just as inflation and expensive reform reduced income to central governments. Had Muslims remained on a par with all other societies, they might have revived. But by the 18th century one particular set of societies in western Europe had developed an economic and social system capable of transcending the 5,year-old limitations of the agrarian-based settled world as defined by the Greeks—who called it Oikoumene.

Unlike most of the lands of Islamdom, those societies were rich in natural resources especially the fossil fuels that could supplement human and animal power and poor in space for expansion. Cut off by Muslims from controlling land routes from the East, European explorers had built on and surpassed Muslim seafaring technology to compete in the southern seas and discover new sea routes—and, accidentally, a new source of wealth in the Americas.

In Europe centralized absolutism, though an ideal, had not been the success it was in Islamdom. Emerging from the landed classes rather than from the cities, it had benefited from and been constrained by independent urban commercial classes.

In Islamdom the power of merchants had been inhibited by imperial overtaxation of local private enterprise, appropriation of the benefits of trade, and the privileging of foreign traders through agreements known as the Capitulations.

In Europe independent financial and social resources promoted an unusual freedom for technological experimentation and, consequently, the technicalization of other areas of society as well.

This combination of innovation and imitation produced an unprecedented and persisting imbalance among various parts of the Oikoumene.

Reform movement - Wikipedia

The power of Islam as a source of public values had already waxed and waned many times; it intensified in the 18th and 19th centuries, receded in the early 20th century, and surged again after the midth century. Thus, European colonizers appeared in the midst of an ongoing process that they greatly affected but did not completely transform.

Precolonial reform and experimentation from to From the midth century through the 18th and early 19th centuries, certain Muslims expressed an awareness of internal weakness in their societies.

In some areas, Muslims were largely unaware of the rise of Europe; in others, such as IndiaSumatra, and Java, the 18th century actually brought European control.

Responses to decline, sometimes official and sometimes unofficial, sometimes Islamizing and sometimes Europeanizing, fell into two categories, as the following examples demonstrate.

In some areas leaders attempted to revive existing political systems. In Iranfor example, attempts at restoration combined military and religious reform.

After he was killed inhowever, his reforms did not survive and his house disintegrated. In the Ottoman Empire restoration involved selective imitation of things European.

Its first phase, from tois known as the Tulip Period because of the cultivation by the wealthy of a Perso-Turkish flower then popular in Europe.

Experimentation with European manners and tastes was matched by experimentation with European military technology. Restoration depended on reinvigorating the military, the key to earlier Ottoman success, and Christian Europeans were hired for the task.

Meanwhile, central power continued to weaken, especially in the area of international commerce.Islamic world - Islamic history from to the present: reform, dependency, and recovery: The history of modern Islam has often been explained in terms of the impact of “the West.” From this perspective the 18th century was a period of degeneration and a prelude to European domination, symbolized by Napoleon I’s conquest of Egypt in History of the United States Industrialization and reform () The industrial growth that began in the United States in the early 's continued steadily up to and through the American Civil War.

Following the passing of China dissident and Nobel Peace Prize Winner Liu Xiaobo, HKFP is sharing NGO Human Rights in China’s translation of Charter The manifesto was co-written by Liu and.

Above: a 3D computer model of the brown hydra, Pelmatohydra generated using the Pov-Ray graphical language and ray-tracer (using sphere-sweeps and also superposition of sine waves for the tentacles).

Hydra is a coelenterate, along with the jellyfish (Scyphozoa), sea anemones and corals and other diverse forms. Hydra. History of the United States Industrialization and reform () The industrial growth that began in the United States in the early 's continued steadily up to and through the American Civil War.

Click here to read the Chronology of Islam From 6th Century () C.E. to 20th Century () C.E. World of Islam; The Spread of Islam; General Characteristics of Islam.